There were many African grown crops that traveled along the slave ship with slaves. Slave cottage near Bardstown, Kentucky. My favorite plant-based okra recipe involves a quick saute with garlic, tomato, and herbs. This page was last edited on 11 October 2022, at 21:29. Gibbs declares that there is no class of working people in the world better cared for than the Southern slave. He states that many medicines, as well as high quality Brandy or wine, are made available to sick slaves, and that the hygiene/cleanliness of plantation environments is held to a high standard. Rice and Beans. Morning meals were prepared and consumed at daybreak in the slaves' cabins. They were shipped from ports in West Africa to European colonies in the Americas. Sapelo, a barrier island about the size of Manhattan, has about 50 residents, primarily descendants of African slaves who settled here after slavery was outlawed. Gibbs, Robert. Corn was one of the most versatile crops eaten by American Slaves. x}Y%q)kOIf5WN'|2k@[46 > TY4!4BF/>xu~}q%xdG?4O/ W?yqyP ^jrq:|'1Yv>=~uuZo? F. from the Cameron Papers, Letter from John and Ebenezer Pettigrew to Charles Pettigrew, October 3, 1795, Lenoir Family Papers Account of Corn, 1785, Business Invoice from the Cameron Papers, 1774, Fiddle Headed Teaspoon, late 1700s / early 1800s, Distilling Method for Corn Whiskey Lenoir Papers (1790s), Newspaper Advertisement from The Pennsylvania Gazette (Dec 5, 1771), Accounting Record of Spice Purchases for the Household of William Lenoir (May 30, 1772), Sunflower Oil Recipe and Mangel-Wurzel Cultivation, Financial Document The Lenoir Family Papers, Excerpt from A Tour in the United States of America, Blums Farmers and Planters Almanac for the year 1870, Star Brand Fertilizers Advertisement in The Danbury Reporter, Liquid standard presented to UNC in 1883, Planting Fruit Trees to Secure Success by Abigail Bowdish, The Bennehan Familys Sugar and Rum Purchases, Mary Ann Bryan Masons Mrs. Masons New Cookery. Most slave purchasing reflected this tension between necessity, luxury, and potential danger. African rice often accompanied slave voyages. black-eyed Peas. Journal of the American Revolution also produces annual hardcover volumes, a branded book series, and the podcast, Dispatches. Would masters renege on sales or manipulate prices beyond reach? 2 cups (450 ml) grits (regular, not instant). I know versions of his diary exist elsewhere, but the war time entries can be found, Thank you for sharing that, Adam. In my recent study of enslaved cooks, I relied on archaeological evidence and material culturethe rooms where they once lived, the heavy cast iron pots they lugged around, the gardens they plantedand documents such as slaveholders letters, cookbooks, and plantation records to learn about their experiences. 2, 297. Food and Social Reform in the Progressive Era, Pepsi-Cola Advertisement in The Tar Heel, 1916, Food Conservation Effort in Orange County, NC During the First World War, News of the Academies-North Carolina Dining Hall (Aug. 3, 1913), Buffet Lunches Will Be Served During Holiday, What We Are Doing to Conserve Food and Keep Down Waste Jillian Fellows, North Carolina Supreme Court Case: Damages Awarded against Packer Because of Death Caused by Eating Unwholesome Fish, Waiters at Commons Hall, circa 1890s-1920s, 5 February 1916: The banqueting season of 1915-16 opened at nine oclock Friday night when forty-eight members of the senior class sat down in Swain Hall to grapefruit an maraschino.. Historians have argued that slaves participation in the internal economy was a form of resistance, that simply the act of buying property repudiated slaves status as property. stream Weekly food rations usually corn meal, lard, some meat, molasses, peas, greens, and flour were distributed every Saturday. Slaves were usually given a weekly ration of food such as cornmeal, lard, offals, and molasses greens etc supplemented at times with meat and fish. Growing numbers of researchers, many of them African-American, are bringing to light the uncredited ways slaves and their descendants have shaped how Americans eat. Nice recipes. 6 cups (1.25 liter) water After being established in the Caribbean islands, the plantation system spread during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries to European colonies in the Americas and Asia. Luckily, many slaves were able to survive by hunting, fishing, and gardening. Internal economy focused political struggle, and consumption was deeply woven into the tragic and tangled fabric of the master-slave relation. Africans made up 40 percent of the Souths population.[1]. However, grilled and roasted okra make delicious side dishes. Then, other foods made available to slaves are listed, including: bacon, molasses, potatoes, poultry, and eggs. Secession in 1860 sharpened this double-edged sword and threw all aspects of southern economic life into crisis. In Slave culture, these big pots of stewed greens drew a direct resemblence to the stews of Western Africa. Planters embraced the use of slaves mainly because indentured labor became expensive. Enslaved cooks brought this cuisine its unique flavors, adding ingredients such as hot peppers, peanuts, okra, and greens. Some indentured servants were also leaving to . At the top of that list is Atlanta chef Linton Hopkins, who has concocted several ways to serve her peas at his acclaimed southern-upscale Restaurant Eugene, including in his version of Hoppin' John. So, given the risks enslaved consumers posed, why did slaveholders allow their people to trade? Buyers on the black market, then, had to alter behavior so that they could consume goods without discovery. That meant the slaves could plant for themselves," says Bailey, who has recruited other local farmers to plant the crop this spring. Slaveholders wrestled with the implications of such behavior, sometimes outlawing slave spending outright, but more often looking to manipulate it to their own advantage. [2] The number of slaves in the 15 States was just shy of 4 million in a total population 12.4 million and the percentage was 32% of the population. Serve in slices, or mash it up with a little salt. The slaves in America didnt have fufu or injera. In 1740 the Havana Company was formed to stimulate agricultural development by increasing slave imports and regulating agricultural exports. Acts of buying and sellingof crops, goods, cash, and labor-powerwould remake the South in freedoms image. Heres why each season begins twice. I also love making Gluten-Free Cornbread and Southern Corn Pudding for family gatherings. Hercules and Hemings were the nations first celebrity chefs, famous for their talents and skills. The actual origins of Callaloo are widely contested. Joyner Rare E444.B58, Special Collections Department, J.Y. Print. The fact that we still eat many of these foods today is a testament to the spirit and strength of these early African Americans. Offerings such as pepper pot, okra stew, gumbo, and jambalaya became staples on American dining tables. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1979. These purchases took careful planning. Purchased clothes were garish and gaudy, they scoffed. The indigo crop was grown for making blue indigo dye in the pre-industrial age. [7] Hilliard, Masters, Slaves, and Exchange, 6993. tUqqM^]gG oyQH5/CKu m:' $D0 &1*eKQ 2 *XlserS4'S:qJfpf+^rhMT4`yi L^c7)e_dJIS*=m+yh~>;UEWD=_GL5,A ^=Eeobge%nh&kJ5H #O bEV5 9NUiNz-U+F/D 6g^*^f:,_O_.MBV7y#="iIg/ce2I #dg@ `` 1SD Hf]QvnYV7. oS@ hFoL:ZxZ\]&eP Advertisers leaned on characters like Aunt Jemima and Rastus, stereotypical black domestics, drawn from minstrel song. "Okra is connected indelibly with the American South," says Harris. Bring to a boil, lower the heat to a simmer, cover and simmer, stirring occasionally to prevent it from scorching, until peas are tender (30 minutes to an hour if using fresh or frozen peas; up to two hours for dry). Fantastic work and writing. The plantation owners then turned to enslaved Africans for labor. 2, 23; Ibid., 3, pt. The master class scraped to make ends meet. Upon hearing that these are the types of food that slaves were eating, as well as the extensive medical care provided to slaves, a layman that was ignorant of southern slavery practices would certainly be swayed in favor of slavery. What the Slaves Ate. Organization of American Historians Looking forward to trying out all the recipes. On plantations, African American slaves did the same thing. The sweet potato, indigenous to North America, is quite similar in texture and appearance (to the point that many modern cooks have trouble distinguishing them), and its believed that slaves simply used them just as they had yams in Africa.[iii]. theamericanhistorian@oah.org, 2023 Organization of American Historians, Masters, Slaves, and Exchange: Power's Purchase in the Old South. For decades, the bang of the gavel had broadcast both triumph and tragedy in Virginias capital as propertylivestock, furniture, human soulstraded in the citys busy auction houses. For the cooks, it must have been a different kind of experience. What did the slaves eat? Your email address will not be published. Your email address will not be published. Despite the newspapers warnings, white Southerners could not have been surprised to see enslaved buyers browsing goods for sale. As described by Carol Graham, a former slave from Alabama: Greens was cooked in a big black washpot jus like yo boils clothes in now.. Slavery had associated with it the health problems commonly associated with poverty. They created favorites like gumbo, an adaptation of a traditional West . "Transatlantic Slave Trade". The slave diet was very simple. As Frederick Douglas recounts I have often been so pinched with hunger, that I have fought with the dog. Goodloe, for example, advised slaveholders to allow supervised shopping trips. Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience, Plantation complexes in the Southern United States, https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Plantation, "How Slavery Helped Build a World Economy", http://abolition.e2bn.org/slavery_42.html, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slave_plantation&oldid=1115516973. For a guest, this must have been delightful: biscuits, ham, and some brandy, all made on site, ready to eat at 2:30 a.m. or whenever you pleased. These skeletons may have the answer, Scientists are making advancements in birth controlfor men, Blood cleaning? But to be an American is to live in a place where contradictions are the very fibers that bind a complicated heritage divided sharply by race. Planter James Goodloe posed two questions to readers of the Southern Cultivator in 1860. In their limited personal time, enslaved people kept fruit and vegetable gardens, raised poultry, and foraged for wild plants. [6] Esther S. Davis, Memories of Mulberry (1913), 15. Another ingredient that came from Africa was okra. :"Zc35I*Ga^ You can find their faces throughout early 20th-century black Americana, and they are still on the grocery shelves today, though modified to reflect a more dignified image. Choosing to buy control of ones own body affirmed a slaves status as chattel, even as that commodity transaction broke the chains of servitude completely. Slaveholders lamented spending on alcohol most of all, complaining that it caused disorder on the plantation and hindered productivity, but memoirs, slave narratives, and court records indicate that rum and liquor were highly sought. The process for converting plain corn to the more-digestible hominy, which involves soaking in lye (extracted from ashes), was taught to the earliest settlers by the Native Americans. Cultivation of sugar had to follow a precise scientific system to profit from the production. Underneath the slave ship's decks, Africans were held chest-to-chest and could not do much moving. Before long these enslaved cooks took the roles that had once been occupied by white indentured servants. All rights reserved, Culinary historian and author Jessica Harris. The practice was abolished in most places during the 19th century. 25 Slaves often gardens grew sweet potatoes in their gardens, utilizing skills that African Americans passed down from generation to generation. (n.d.). Over 400 years, nearly 13 million Africans were kidnapped and imprisoned on European slave ships bound for the Americas. A reason many did not make it to the colonies at all was disease and illness. These were compiled by slaveholding women, whose responsibilities sat firmly in the domestic sphere, and are now housed in historical societies throughout the country. Describing holidays past, Esther Davis, a South Carolina planters daughter, recalled that in Camdens business district, those three days were given up to the negroes. Merchants angled for enslaved customers: the few stores that were open, were intended just for this trade and did a thriving business. Indeed, she noted, the foundations of some small fortunes were laid in those same small stores with their stocks of hardware, crockery, beads and brass jewelry, calico and bandana handkerchiefs, candy, etc. [6], Much of what we know about slave spending is anecdotal, but scattered ledgers from rural stores and outposts provide a glimpse of what and how slaves consumed. How much was their labor-power worth in a market that was weighted against free people of color? They may well have also added greens like collards, but this is really quite a nourishing meal. Frederick Douglas describes a similar use of corn: Our food was coarse cornmeal boiled. As consumers, slaves challenged slaveholders looking to maintain mastery. Bacon grease or other pork fat would have been relatively easy to come by, and if chicken stock werent available on a given day, this recipe would still work, with the addition of some extra salt. ~:J3c5T~84.6kcA9jrapbZWVP~t,KERdK2Zp28i6B Its not easy uncovering the histories of enslaved cooks, who left few records of their own and whose stories often appear in the historical record as asidesincidental details sprinkled through the stories of the people who held them in bondage. Others crafted brooms or baskets. Towns explained to readers of the Southern Planter that those who had pleased him [went] off with a pocket full of silver, taking care to note, and I always pay them in silver.[9]. Provisioning, then, serves as a framework for understanding slave spending. Hercules was taught by the well-known New York tavern keeper and culinary giant Samuel Frances, who mentored him in Philadelphia; Hemings traveled with Jefferson to Paris, where he learned French-style cooking. These have been a great deal of fun to work on, and I love getting feedback from readers. [ii] Wilke, Richard, and Livia Barbosa. Yet, many of the plant-based foods in our current diet are reflections of our nations history. In a highly racialized and segregated America, still grappling with its guilt over slavery, white people created a myth that these cooks wereand always had beenhappy. But from its most famous to its anonymous practitioners, the story of Southern cuisine is inseparable from the story of American racism. 2: 21; Booker T. Washington and Frank Beard, An Autobiography: The Story of My Life and Work (1901), 1617; Rawick, American Slave, 2, pt. "The strange dishes they were serving us weren't strange to me, because I was going, 'Hey, we eat this back home.' The first plantations occurred in the Caribbean islands, particularly, in the West Indies on the island of Hispaniola, where it was initiated by the Spaniards in the early 16th century. Serve with plain white rice, perhaps cooked with a little extra water, so that it softens a bit more than usual, and if you have it, dash some pepper sauce over it to liven up the flavor. 2, 149; Ibid., 12, pt. Keeping the traditional "stew" cooking could have been a form of subtle resistance to the owner's control. In the early 17th century, tobacco farming began to spread throughout Virginias Tidewater region. In a large pot, bring to a boil: Unauthorized use is prohibited. Rather than ham hock, use the vegan secret weapon of smoked paprika. Availalbe for use through Wiki Commons. They also sold items at the weekly market in Alexandria to earn small amounts of money. 8H^IBL,c~`x^',M pR5i?mT{QfwN se!ntRZ.Y2 B9G5<2h7POdS_]g*lXBN[g5=jV#NT 8u;MnOn/n VFAh.l~)Ra@6!vmR@JHI )HiZ 8@hw+ev#ZV'Wby-sOATsf:!S",K t1*m!6>2 Gb-xhD=pdW{ @|O. It is often smoked or roasted at Fall Pumpkin festivals. 3: 81. Most sources agree that the slaves were generally expected to get by on what was left from the slaveholders larders, supplemented with what they could raise on their own, provided that their owners permitted it. A slave plantation was an agricultural farm that used enslaved people for labour. I top them with broccoli and red chili paste, make quick Southwest Stuffed potatoes, and roast them in wedges for Buddha Bowls. David Shields, a professor at the University of South Carolina in Columbia and an expert in early American literature and food revivals, points to Emeline Jones as an example. For further explication of my own views, see Kathleen M. Hilliard, Masters, Slaves, and Exchange: Powers Purchase in the Old South (2014) and Bonds Burst Asunder: The Transformation of Internal Economy in Confederate Richmond, in Commodification, Community, and Comparison in Slave Studies, eds. Cookie Settings, Courtesy of Internet Archive Book Images, via Wikimedia Commons, Kids Start Forgetting Early Childhood Around Age 7, Archaeologists Discover Wooden Spikes Described by Julius Caesar, Artificial Sweetener Tied to Risk of Heart Attack and Stroke, Study Finds, Rare Jurassic-Era Insect Discovered at Arkansas Walmart. The journey from Africa across the Atlantic Ocean was called "the middle passage", and was one of the three legs which comprised the triangular trade among the continents of Europe, the Americas, and Africa. Reduce heat to a low simmer and cook for five minutes, stirring occasionally. Grits purists will be gratified to hear that, again, we will take a very straightforward approach to this dish, eschewing cheese, ham or other additions or embellishments. [3]. So why cant we, as Americans today, look at this history for what it was? ", Georgia chef and farmer Matthew Raiford is able to reconstruct his family's past through his farm, which has been in his family since 1874. Slavery. What if we could clean them out? The author of the letter (slave owner Robert W. Gibbs) is described in the newspaper article as one of the most intelligent physicians of the South and a gentleman of the highest personal character and consideration. In the actual letter Gibbs also establishes his own qualifications for speaking about the treatment of southern slaves by stating that he has cared for several thousands of slaves in his lifetime. House slave was a term used to refer to those enslaved Africans relegated to performing domestic work on American slave plantations. altogether different situation "us have plenty of good food to eat too. (1849.) Records from six antebellum stores across Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia indicate that enslaved consumers spent hard-earned cash on a wide variety of goods. "Slave owners sent back and got seeds for what the slaves were used to eating, because they weren't used to the food here in America. Information about diet and food production for enslaved Africans on plantations. Seemingly unimportant trades ruined old relations and wove together new webs of economic, social, political, and cultural life in a thousand stressed communities. Please be respectful of copyright. Choice implied agency and that agency undermined masters rule. 84. eBook. Number of slaves in the Lower South: 2,312,352 (47% of total population) 4,919 million. The Campus of The University of North Carolina, Located in the Village of Chapel Hill. Gibbs also mentions that the most industrious slaves were allowed to have their own gardens and chickens to tend to, and were able to sell their crops/goods for their own profit. Sources are exceptionally scarce and contemporary recipes are nonexistent, but we can reconstruct some idea of what the table in the slaves quarters might have offered to maintain these unfortunate souls in their labors. Such paradoxes troubled more than a few, but practical concerns and a desire for labors just reward pushed them to work extra hours, save cash, and put plans in motion to make freedom theirs. In cotton and tobacco regions, enslaved people more often worked from sunup to sundown under the close eye of a driver or overseer. One formerly-enslaved woman remembered that she and her family aint had nothin but de coarsest food an clothes. Educator and former slave Booker T. Washington commented on clothing in particular, recalling shirts that were stiff and coarse . watermelon. For most, these questions were no more than abstractions, as few enslaved people managed to purchase themselves. They constructed potato holes, often near the fire, where they would bury their sweet potatoes. ", Bailey, back on Sapelo, agrees. How did this mountain lion reach an uninhabited island? By some estimates, it is said that some ten million Africans were brought to the Americas. Cool enough to handle, and then peel the skins off and discard. For Trinidadians, Callaloo is one part of their national dish: Crab and Callaloo- a dish which was created by the African slaves sometime around 1530 when the island was under Spanish occupation. But their enslaved ancestors were forced to eat whatever was provided to them by the slave owners. [2] Historians and anthropologists across the Caribbean and the United States have explored the mechanics and meaning of the slaves internal economy. Thank you very much!! Photo by Henry P. Moore. Perhaps the easiest way to monitor slave spending was through the operation of a plantation store. Old cells hang around as we age, doing damage to the body. SLAVERY AND THE MAKING OF AMERICA is a production of Thirteen/WNET New York. Bondpeople in urban and rural areas alike had long sold their labor power, bought property, earned credit, and incurred debts through participation in what historians and anthropologists call the slaves internal economy.[2] Spending money they earned after and between labor completed for their masters, enslaved consumers sought to provide material comfort to themselves and their kin, to differentiate themselves from their peers, and perhaps most importantly, to acquire material markers of freedom in a world that hemmed them in at every turn. There was waste and urine throughout the hold; this caused the captives to get sick and to die from illnesses that could not be cured. %PDF-1.4 "Those conversations need to happen so everyone has a voice at the table.